Transformational Leadership, Digital School Culture, and Student Development in Online Learning: Evidence from Indonesian Primary Schools

Abstract

Online primary learning environments require schools to maintain effective leadership and supportive digital cultures that promote student engagement and development. This study examined the relationships among transformational leadership, digital school culture, and student development in Indonesian primary schools implementing virtual and blended learning settings. Using a quantitative cross-sectional design, data were collected from 120 primary school teachers and analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The findings showed that transformational leadership positively influenced digital school culture and student development, while digital school culture also positively affected student outcomes and partially mediated the relationship between leadership and student outcomes. The model demonstrated moderate to strong explanatory power for both digital school culture and student development. The findings suggest that student development in digitally mediated learning is shaped not only by instructional practices and technology use but also by leadership-supported cultural environments that guide participation, communication, and responsible behavior in virtual instructional settings. This study contributes to online learning research by emphasizing the importance of leadership and digital school culture as interconnected mechanisms that support student engagement and behavioral growth in primary education.