Military Use of Outer Space and the Interpretation of “Peaceful Purposes” under International Space Law

Abstract

The increasing militarization of outer space challenges the efficacy of international space law, highlighting the friction between established legal norms and the strategic behavior of major spacefaring nations. Although the 1967 Outer Space Treaty mandates that space be preserved for peaceful purposes and the benefit of all humanity, the absence of a precise definition, particularly under Article IV, generates significant interpretive ambiguity. This ambiguity permits states to develop military-support and dual-use capabilities while maintaining formal compliance with their treaty obligations. Consequently, the blurring distinction between permissible militarization and prohibited weaponization undermines the legal regime's capacity to effectively address modern geopolitical and technological realities. This legislative inertia is further exacerbated by the fact that no new treaties have entered into force since 1984, leaving the international community to grapple with the divergence between "non-military" and "non-aggressive" interpretations of existing mandates (Otterstedt, 2020)https://dummy-citation.com/citation?d=z%3A7VjNbiRFEm52V7urWY20l73sAaU4gWS33f5hZrig4U%2BMAI2FLThnVUVV5TgrsyZ%2F%2BgdxMOIRuMIzIHHzjUdB8wJcuHHhi8zqtttuDxw4cGjJdndVRUV88UXElzHz1eXo77V1qlHmX%2FQ82kCL%2F3x%2F1pJ4HskHZY2wtQi41tRILQobTSWdIi%2FwqFNaBekWInq%2BUQsbAznhe1mSUF4UVNpOmUZ01pGQpspfHGmaShPg19nYtLhREi4rmpK2fYfvfkcAlVDGB2ngTPoEwsSuQABEMpLBAVEOBuMSEJQpHUmAGYv3p4wEN0hMHj082hHGCkOzwV7LmQgwDQvRwndBZISsbB%2BoEogLBOTwVZlgs%2B%2BEniF0JA2nBAwvLr7tCd7qqEUfXW8R%2BMXFdwwW1PVRS3anTHqvjM5xkrWTHc2sO2eCQhv9io6xOA1KaxFsJRcJr4yhRW0Ccp0S6KmVUddrApCdoLnywQ%2F44BM%2Fs3aRv8PI44PmEmVgfmC4TACFBEMDCczHi4tvcn18T6WqVSm1XizhSxdUqUk8%2BWwZ%2FGmq9Wmi8yx7ef3p6dkbyQ8omBFywadUHf5wdRkuMkBsxpFwUyouoJcWlIOejKqMPtiOOwsVILcqNmCOBXenI0%2FSlS1nW1uYg2iJZhqKVGrpPSfANTLW7C47lcuDxvCgfXgimwbOPAjmZylc74gpzzzfWWSEktpbRu4VQDPtCoj4GpPEmaUgG9%2FmpoP%2F1FAvHSIjGjLkpB7fvyfu34O%2Fk03%2BYHetQihDKvMqyevpM3AVhOx7zWOMBmcUn1jA4UcWVygAehI9nCa%2BgtmOKGJAS2Jms%2F2stYi1jnYsPrQzzLDb4brflToqlni7PSLgXXZFdosUdhhmJxdC1jWVrBbMx8368N2MuXd2qjxusw6wg7F4XJbWVeg4jYH6A2mCRJ6zgS7FXfWF5cGZwRrCknygXcIGsbM9NIRFa62gY%2FEuuSCVWSLY2HawTLwwBeifKk85O0uqB%2FupsuDqd3pyVaN1nVIhFcRHdKc0Nzmc2air9FqB0Y99bx3XpGAJYYmZp2TT9zTlaIUFiofCAa0s0XSUM4PLXjoZLFJPApdGZBCC7JtcraONYAW9jDnmUwG%2FNMUApXkJLZSit4CYNCO5taCpYE4ZEW7eOZHcVYlFF9FEf0BJThMj2TzT0EoIbS1RRBbCQqEU4JCWDQj27mzrmxM4Fh8o5wPXHSSglVOEdCHR1rDnuGDzKg73JrhK5IKj09QLyQEzuexlHsFuIXAY8BVGM7tH5pkqIEg83R7yTUObfHP1LVp0w9zjBNUxhx3mZyzewRGLERoOtpXWzjCr3G7L%2FuKX7qRr4EO0WTKEJ%2BoYJ%2BioFPhOhyVIWh4MFWG%2BViyhEwcF1naWBmXjXK1r6yAzm1jYEQvKswPvt1ThNgdZEK6y4GnbILZjtPn9ex%2FL3AZphvKJ7GPTIMbQ8Hfqwo1RxYsMEZ0QMWdwxptC4gHal6hlBrW1mL2XzMlqREBb75Cc6jMhiORj13MsPmZ5k7jKLiFdJxRCgKVERr2kAcUDkhbjOkjIy5RqSB1RyuXLjvAAryaNSXqeOF8qQXawlCPWnimrwlXsIdRYPDHC2w7NyctgOkhyjHzycKt1Fm%2Bn04cpQ%2FElqE3HyBAFZEylyr6Sm6Hmd6W0QoFI4JP9NpQ8zlRo%2BTWao424tDodxLdGwKS%2FnMdqjq1oePVDlXgPhABiKTSYsutIxxWr7eXov60sfGBJ3q7w2xV%2Bu8JvV%2FjtCr9d4bcr%2FHaF367w2xV%2Bu8L%2FlVd4jYZAz1D1HvJpDvYPjncnk44HBypD7omp7eXolSZvk%2F5C8xOnwDSu8F%2F4f6sMVlJ81jXWRL149hQlgHJRBW%2BIbs4fGyPF%2B5WGpFYOwzOqsb%2BcVPUvpar85egflfKFucBfby7KTjbPDieHR28eHTw8fNTysSg1zc8%2Fv7oJy6fyl2ewjxn0M4De392f4KfV0jRRNlQQxC0WYdEztvNBXM9w%2BQr6k2z9EQTw%2Bm1MCRZW2OqS2%2B%2BdxbvYB8MIp1ZSk5Kqz3Eq%2BXwX6hSAame1TZ0MpWSVeLJ2VOQV92M5q4PtVem%2Fvhz9s65wqCiDYIWq5GFi8PlJu8hCeFqqdJxhYSddZaPicJKsYrbKC%2Ftj%2FJPLGtstYFCfTQ4eTB4ko%2FkQlOa9thh1Hn62d9TwysT5e5wG9OvbP%2F%2F6vx9Ho1ELpq4Fqw4n%2BxnU%2FP%2BrGFcR%2BwzhVh4H6RV7aksWv81ZZLc3bTL%2Bo%2BPJcY766jqFIC9Hn6p19N%2F9IDahPzzYz352TywE5zqpyc%2B6908pc%2FLnJ7T%2F4OhRBvLa5oQ%2BjB2k8VPVtAG9MyT19pc%2F%2FYlJVTwB%2F4bi6%2Fl7bQi9f2tvT8d%2BrGOB37GnPR8i1qew20ssWH6PV0hX7T3aPzw6Pj7aq5Umvng42T8e91V9zrvZZzCE89Fv.

Utilizing a normative juridical framework, this study employs doctrinal, statutory, conceptual, and comparative legal methodologies to critically evaluate the efficacy of the extant international legal regime in regulating contemporary outer space militarization. The investigation scrutinizes key provisions of the Outer Space Treaty—specifically Articles I, II, III, IV, VI, VII, and IX—in conjunction with state practice, national space doctrines, institutional responses, and nascent governance initiatives. Eschewing empirical assessment of military capabilities or strategic outcomes, the analysis prioritizes the identification of regulatory lacunae, interpretive fragmentation, and structural deficiencies within international space law through a comparative examination of the legal positions and practices adopted by the United States, China, Russia, India, and France. Moreover, the analysis explores how the advancement of anti-satellite technologies and ballistic missile defense systems complicates the application of jus ad bellum and the right to self-defense in orbital environments (Abbas & Shou-ping, 2019; Sara, 2024)https://dummy-citation.com/citation?d=z%3A7VtPbBxXGXeatlSlSBSJC4fqqaqUVLXXu%2Bs4tgu0ceKUWDRp1CTkWN7MvJl59sy86Xszu94gJLcc2gNICIHUCpAqcULcysknKg4cQIgLVyQUqRInkJAqkCIkft97Mzsz9iZtYhxx8MGpd%2Fab731%2Fft%2Ff5769N%2Fd45Mdltr0Z7DwXLK8MVlYGZxfE2hl%2F4czQO7vgrXGx0PfWvGWfe%2F2V1X6UKJ8XSu%2FNndjKeSSulKknNB%2BESstIZo%2BmeRBeklGc4KcwoJL2Baky88O9uUcCz1M7e3OPhrEggjsv%2F9v%2F2l%2Fn5uaCRITFnXP9v7zF8MkvVH7n3Ff%2F9OS38UGMZVDEd85d%2FdEHu%2FjYOnVuJsMvfgFUMxl%2B%2FaV36aspww9%2FfO5wDF%2F61SZxaBh%2Bl3Q5BMNzTz3WZfjxYRn%2BVnzUYfjlQzJc3%2Fldxykf%2FueQTjm%2FeKrjlF%2B%2Fe1iGH7%2FzQUfC5%2BjjfTMkPziGF376t65T5CFtuPH6pa5T%2FnhIHF584pdktIbhD%2Bi7%2B2X4DH2qGP7myW6kXHwQhi0JXym3uk559JA2%2FMYLf6APDcN3CJaHYXj7BRKpweFN8tEhGF567%2FvdSPnzfmCLN0tViMnjT697ptDcL3rsWs59wW4KnqtM3rJ5k%2FEsYJdlIguu60fSMM5SVWaFzCKWiIgneGZKwQrFiliwsdJJwHIBbmAqknAh1zjLL%2BRIMAkGhWGh1KZgIld%2BbObtWzkJISGACpmxkiCts9SdPWGBxtuGxdywTI2ZJ3yVCsajSAtj8FWPXQeTTFkRwaJ6Ud4SQcWOXvWEyJgf8yzCY2%2BCg3lB1Ld3fzau9BbB7d2fM1UWQrsXHWeZ4UFmLQB9WcLHpIrjrLJkwmBF2ENkBX6H5J4MDMsT7pOR0jKTtgxZybgxLBCgL6EwGTSD4egN8oGCecjETKY5apu1Gb5O%2BbZgpvTj5hySAbYbxxJPfVXC5oIbieNzLUZEoHy%2F1Fpkzqi%2BysJE%2BjA%2BOZUVIjPWw6nKIvjClN4WfGQgzkglIxK7ZQT7TsyTAiaDdJFWY6IoYi2cBZ3TayNaO%2FUY25BhKCBBwZzpcLaGPnpiX1YsL4vqHToXD5rDuoTWXoocJuBEXhaTKU5wDDlIQOqysmcDm1wZQwBxB9jXW1rNs%2FM8SaQB7oBykCWCbYgQlhHs9PnLG88zMzGFSOcZWwfc04rkVW7AwQWKYafXL998fh4yF9LwQoBfgRhwX87DrHokZJJweIGIAoskEMGF0NTnOfdIWAlwk9s5e7OErqRHyvW2DYIu9gB8i6cJAZOCUUN8SIUgG0nYCSwCUXAIGjA1EnokxZiMRbozkQqNVgk2FX6cqURFdPAYAsK7gBoUk6qEKGkOrDifVefkHICEPH4JiwLzluFmNyymspHPAI0E8WTpGtR2lUH6kCZxiYXwUCGXXpmKynM8jiu4gmvEdUDPHVY6kHMwnbaAMEQITJPnpyfWLpgpg4v15gksAqzF6C%2BtgxTk0pQ0MnYDWsLAVypYKx3xWggHcpJa5VoCEtaJxuarAmEXACpkKvhfE7EHRDaIBYZhNcto3mUFiBgIT0ugSWQjqVWWwkZ4WqfVSm%2F4DCmUPOMsA4OWeCt1nkVqrNIfgQKiw1d5IoDFic2EFMjQsccChPL23tzTMa8qw%2BSJR46sNPzfV4Znm7rw7KdVhSMvCkdcEx5GSXg4FeHoC8JDqgdHWw6OthocfTF4CLXgIZSCo68ED1YINl3OgX2yAGQ2IwKL3EOAxNYXDO6FQin5uGMoxFjqgR8J40RAMtKIbFnEzp8Z3vPhVas%2F0hoO8UF%2FEBIjkRAYjCgKoDqQBhmC7B%2Fuo0S2pwiTdfSQ%2B0pbQaZoNWUUQQGnUxunyqVV2Cug81Ru5ZqaLxDTmtEgq2VySqQ485bI4DWbVVEBNaHEATRBwqkqmfLpd9CUxpZI7KdI9FQERA71iayrfY%2BtIx6dGtX7lPnxryJsEYzqiEFYlJQk3VFtRMCpqMOask4d%2FO1UXmXChOuoKmqwExHGZQowI7mgaNHRItgAiqNhf3h2oT9IAV2klkzoTfhzb%2B6xyIWI2U0cBF%2FBj9JBv9fvC9sInBSFhB932CsAL9ykbRa%2BzDNMptborwsjuPbjkLJ3Kk4mdISWXgk%2BBivDR4KMpwL%2FDUMOr0zEuuch%2FUaAXSauxULoQKtE2IG5SymvxapcyCnzWGrv1U1HGqL%2BXw3CT3xUZ%2Bwk%2FUDJ8aDfGw7P9s8uhqnuDfuDtd7SUr%2B%2FBPh52S7%2BNdnbcrg8WFtYW15Zq39bXfFTHm0N15bP9JfPrq6tAUkiW7eG2wyKwZmlwaC%2FutRfXhkuDQfD5eFaPyYKDoNs32xeA%2F%2FX%2BCdb1mDW3lskwUJ%2FBSaPUTmiEtbyRLYNLyGsfHFDJzun4qLIzYuLixC%2Fhxy0eBcVIlT1YpKTYbarWnEdH08AKUKF35RZ0H6MypEkE9AmQLgIzk8uELYfR5KwVdwXwU10i8Y%2B%2FXzl259cpGRdtxgH68L1aYfw2drKF9klrtGSyFsUMl1eF6Y1hhLrNR4K%2FEosrgn0OfS8PibEYkT65nvwcBioFKiFVmjI%2BJLFyZtX44lBjUvYNV%2BS7EaEUiSBI%2FKWBpaqdFSuXVqnBiRT6QQE4fXBEAtsS7RT6SV28kRVecXFYFS60iKMj9i98%2FI%2Ffv8R7WViuKR1WLA0ANIsp69Mz2hOzJ0IR6jH6qo7%2FZTTo2JkaS%2FuYCSAAyg%2FoKAl7FUZiqk6v8hoBfW%2FUccJmhL%2F2aoMnZTJFVFqZRyF02CwtlwdeNZ%2BKZA8fZSCS5TM2MUMRduVHrR7ErU4sPbazDI1clW7Vujv%2F%2FwOLeL2KzRc7S9b%2FqMLKqImHiWvLUVA8fUE8PfZo3Kbhq5vIR3i%2BBN7cyerK43PVWu6p16jXuQ1m7GdU65TDFFbL9EXUoNvW7G6EUNTRsBvp3iKj9u779nZKyzRMpQavbAwt3ffd50OSNO7UaAvzdA0uNKABoz6HeTtYNrMj%2FkEBkaWRu2nGVBmMi1TqkIxKjJKrq1JKCIuy9N0ULXLs4efVttPbzZDRaWZ7R5si0KS8cQoEg%2FlCxmzmt1aulfS492gOzvWKjrRbWOyQ50T%2FJ9DW0yVaowarNHoICFyXU0W7fyWoZ1ud5%2Fg6mapqqOeMM0l9ciuzdpxA3HdGriJybaIdYc9VW%2BqPaAQQzpqgrBMpT6Wzi7RlWm2BadzTKwYIcp01lDaZJ3O8NukpakxaMoeVZMHiDvYcW1%2BqgxNshXIWpyJz4EuqQtAN%2BzQe24jsM%2BX1udt9dCKotekVg9u0GijcTD6WD%2BGD0vY2elqcuHLENMazo1Qf2hExRRYz11wrOvxR2q7NvVsa%2BL4qoO0szWBSiMzUH%2FF%2Fe39BtGISwl6gguw7vQdx0g0IDkQQMBnosZYbQB6reicrXeFVQsIF2UHjAhQVguB2VRTSzsYV0X4nqd2GVQJIRYGZ4RoCSh%2BEVOfgsUu8JwodidiO25N%2BIYGsDJ8Rm0FWYzGELSKNIdUO6JmU%2BMGoP1rB4Oeza1TDloavXI1%2Fi4Par1vXGEXYrQ0YABPYkWESRhjgINiBodRQvpsoGghgpCVoNctIzvQoOuGllibKBIXQxrNelWcTJNmEyuVL05ZZ5yq22%2BakdNmyzWdSuws4xYadgkDE1ObT0mU6xC2mwcHPymn2aSboFS2APAjOHyWAqEqgOwQx0BvZCVscBKBntgG%2FVRU4jQml6P9xvqhsDMXh8Ex7GHp4cHClC4qP90PsjZgUNqI1JahAZ92WfgdPwdK1gEXu52gXSe47g6q03RjV2oHs5sVg9aA0J3TdGQcWG2FdyDIRFUWspIag6BaXIYaFZ7KcgV%2BHBghyOsJFl0nVjNkn0Ls2NJ0IID2JfUWNGm3104nVYWg3QK1IvXOZ3%2BVoDJoYoWtGomL1F%2FI0O7D7oVae8QC8icgSWmBKikQdTOm1ZUty3XH2C7BnSxK2C4zynkjGlgRfRpbVrQ%2BtEOlgt%2FNlgiNYFT3WG7N1lRDygQqKO1KwBZEV3HsHtOucBu0KnQXzndNKDinljxZINQ1C7b24qzHLrmyDaxoHtgtK22iO3FoO4%2BWS1I%2BsasRYI0WF0FA62MXTXXctWKlDtIFGj6xWOvKR28FkFtDxCZYc3RymHkhydQJhJJ2TNEyxTG%2FX4faRVO1sHVEVWHEJI6YaGQDYJ1F6uOxi%2FMlHGHPzQQNqxRZ1Y4jVzARmY%2BeRbQxqlcFY4rKdugjtac5ZmmXsm18p%2FR6vXTAWEt5pay2R54oxrSGQv20S02M3xYudmeEUCPpaT3WybpO5s6WBsZSYbHglu8EYIs62rQ6RJEgG5qHBYbFwApyASYAzBtX2W%2BvXr15fR6GDhO7865zuQihHDWwtMO0DQ91HbbKNv0ScRJurrj7cqnHrmD0w4G0D5pvowkUqLR2N0k5w624W8g9mJBcqQwmmELg407DSaEMBNftphuq9uen6pLnS80lz%2FGIcTxiHI8YxyPG8YhxPGIcjxjHI8bxiHE8YhyPGMcjxgOPGLNujJf23xifvNeNsbtOfGYDdyGcncafWRDcq5R8SSTIx9vy%2Bc4F8VsHr32Da1xzd%2BOLFi1j5wHLQOkwnJ91%2B3uydcO727qcXRkMlofLK6sDugI%2BcDk7PIOb2X2Xs2le2j%2BUqDU94W6MZmvRucndqO%2BMxuNxD6JK3gvlIo049LcZKa6QcODiYHVtMFhdHC56tUJvGGj6BnTs4f%2BDaa55Wze7%2F5p9nTs38zp3rrL%2F%2B7iqT9uZGshA74Gv8CdfKHSGvchuzB4G71JZO8X83hNI1bakCCtkhbrfw6FIxvWV7q69b5uz922nZ9oOUYM%2FwugYrn3hdvK%2F.

The analysis indicates that major spacefaring nations broadly accept that the Outer Space Treaty permits military-support functions—including navigation, communication, intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, and command-and-control—yet remain divided over the regulation of space-based military activities. The United States and France prioritize soft-law approaches and norm development, exemplified by the Artemis Accords, whereas China and Russia advocate for legally binding restrictions through initiatives such as the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space and the proposed Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space. India adopts a balanced position, supporting multilateral governance while emphasizing the strategic role of space in national security. Consequently, institutional responses through bodies like UNCOPUOS remain impeded by divergent state interests and limited enforcement mechanisms. Furthermore, the proliferation of anti-satellite technologies continues to exacerbate these regulatory gaps, as existing statutes fail to explicitly prohibit the deployment of conventional weapons or the generation of persistent space debris (Srivastava & Srivastava, 2025)https://dummy-citation.com/citation?d=z%3A7VbLbhxFFJ1AeGxZsEEsSpZQQLLnacd2NsTEiWQRE8sziWFZ3XW7uzzVVZ2q6nlklcCP8Bv%2BGX4ACVZZIDacqhpPjGUkFrDzwvZM1X2ec%2B4tv7novF8YK0upP6KXrfG0vPvppCImtSeruZdGc8UUlfgtpGtaTyw3Osel1CXj2sstxz0pJXHz5cH4YPIV8%2BR8uhXM%2F0MwS6WswxVzDc%2BJ8dzLmfSSHJMOnlwtX5EI974KB9bLXMGs5FI7H8NmPJ8KaxpmCnakheT3HBv2B%2FvsWDqHXGxc8amXsZxNNq9kXrGSNFnUKxhnlSwrNjOqRR0IISizyISMyszZY2SsmLGZ9F0WELHkiFuEQPtOCrKOVbALhTTWzGTIGL3DyWD%2F%2Fi57BrAsG8f2Jpa4XzLe%2Bgpwv0IjwAbIZ1KwANoas2zJcgsccq4U7CMO4dxxJUmj8RToXcpr1dGiUQbfmJOllgXiwKnkTSztYIXi0YtLPJDFzN1lF6IFCwAOaEylJhjH4kIwUM6kZ8IgtDY%2BFSAo9BC9qUbeZR1KhPfZ8WFMGLndZFnr0cAyelahG7DPrQifgOYMTkkac%2BJNQLFR3CNwjeaeI3UJdBa%2BhUFUUmPJRzFtxszr1i3NiKtES23AkGatDkR5gI0oLlS2huB7qGVDtME%2F1LIRGdmouK2LVoWyPK9lEu3GVYYrPiNoZUbKNJCRN6wxkFsGtkjnpm64g1yTmsElb2MDK3Gt5IdAoM3gNDQtITRNc5ZXYIN0GUYgySiNhqO8hSSWrDSzMEegInR%2BOSYufBACJBrk5YJq0DbVZq5IlFHZARCEsIGcxoJK2aiUJCVQHPdcs2w1qgHgMCEABLgTMBRdMTd2etH5pOKZ8xb93S6K20VxuyhuF8X1RaF4npNzJA4xPeWwP9zZGgzqCBOUYo90YS46d8skcPdaSQCR%2Byf4MVb0u%2F09qMkrqp%2FSAtWyR4Ywd0Wavg9UiGMlZALfHy867wnNa8LfogAJank%2BtnLGweOMY21AL8Upn5KrMP2KOv%2FCPvuhm2yLirsTUbzNpXCoNxdGtoN%2B9%2F7%2B%2Fs6ohx67sx0pu6O9bSy7TL%2FGb6ffyFF%2Fe39ruDMcVOAcmNNiera9PRju7G9vjwYwesbfnsO0TfCcR3j6u1vDUaW4LlteUkZ6CqWa1ub03KrFw8r7xj3o9c5xhJCuq9tz1yXR9iQAX3SbqgkF9VabryfMXCvDRQ%2FF9Ub9YenazC%2Bb0PV0ZTPB1zvQFpniWwS5eoyJwT6BrcqxqMU3y0em1f4OtklB0EVO4gwPgYunnUTVgh9LbHWOdRUVG5QUl9kDdkrhDcAtlH0QnoDx%2BgmYrPZYVHXQ8A1b8IkFW%2BHhKbxpZO5%2Buuh8WAhTQ0moECuRjyKhL08qqBubkI1zLD%2FojwpJSiSjDMgHqzZZhWnALsUrZrSplzAoJoPh7mA3Gi1WFaT1mPoJ9hj%2BFssmgOZy7M0%2Fv%2F79D%2Fuw0%2BlUgPdKMjEa9FNRi8%2FWOd5lbFIJ%2F2Mfe3sp%2B73UxypQtH28wMsNkCEvDBGyPJUFrdv5Rf78n7UzjC5mbPKQ5uZmUtjrNqmN0WDYX2X9roUyuWVHYWpSz4fQonbryn%2F79fMbiRhdxtg6MZDcVVxjmKO%2F%2FbdxSoleJ8KwfIw1qBZfXM4epr9rbNm7cQNMg0Jf4PmA952%2FAA%3D%3D.

The paper contends that the current legal framework suffers from both normative gaps and “compliance elasticity,” a phenomenon where states maintain formal alignment with international obligations while materially expanding their military space capabilities. To address this, the paper advocates for clearer definitions of “peaceful purposes,” stricter regulation of anti-satellite testing and debris generation, increased accountability for private actors under Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty, and enhanced mechanisms for transparency and verification. It further promotes a stewardship-based approach to sovereignty, ensuring that national space activities support collective security and the long-term sustainability of the space environment. The study concludes that legal modernization is essential to improve the consistency and stability of space governance, ensuring that outer space remains a secure and accessible domain for present and future generations.